Previous studies have shown that epidural stimulation of the lumbosacral spinal cord (scES) can re-enable lower limb volitional motor control in individuals with chronic, clinically motor complete spinal cord injury (SCI). This observation entails that residual supraspinal connectivity to the lumbosacral spinal circuitry still persisted after SCI, although it was non-detectable when scES was not provided. In the present study, we aimed at exploring further the mechanisms underlying scES-promoted recovery of volitional lower limb motor control by investigating neuroimaging markers at the spinal cord lesion site via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Spinal cord MRI was collected prior to epidural stimulator implantation in 13 individuals with chronic, clinically motor complete SCI, and the spared tissue of specific regions of the spinal cord (anterior, posterior, right, left, and total cord) was assessed. After epidural stimulator implantation, and prior to any training, volitional motor control was evaluated during left and right lower limb flexion and ankle dorsiflexion attempts. The ability to generate force exertion and movement was not correlated to any neuroimaging marker. On the other hand, spared tissue of specific cord regions significantly and importantly correlated with some aspects of motor control that include activation amplitude of antagonist (negative correlation) muscles during left ankle dorsiflexion, and electromyographic coordination patterns during right lower limb flexion. The fact that amount and location of spared spinal cord tissue at the lesion site were not related to the ability to generate volitional lower limb movements may suggest that supraspinal inputs through spared spinal cord regions that differ across individuals can result in the generation of lower limb volitional motor output prior to any training when epidural stimulation is provided.Background Slow-wave activity (SWA) during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep reflects synaptic potentiation during preceding wakefulness. Epileptic activity may induce increases in state-dependent SWA in human brains, therefore, localization of SWA may prove useful in the presurgical workup of epileptic patients. We analyzed high-density electroencephalography (HDEEG) data across vigilance states from a reflex epilepsy patient with a clearly localizable ictal symptomatogenic zone to provide a proof-of-concept for the testability of this hypothesis.  https://www.selleckchem.com/products/Sodium-butyrate.html  Methods Overnight HDEEG recordings were obtained in the patient during REM sleep, NREM sleep, wakefulness, and during a right facial motor seizure then compared to 10 controls. After preprocessing, SWA (i.e., delta power; 1-4 Hz) was calculated at each channel. Scalp level and source reconstruction analyses were computed. We assessed for statistical differences in maximum SWA between the patient and controls within REM sleep, NREM sleep, wakefulness, and seizure. Then, we completed an identical statistical comparison after first subtracting intrasubject REM sleep SWA from that of NREM sleep, wakefulness, and seizure SWA. Results The topographical analysis revealed greater left hemispheric SWA in the patient vs. controls in all vigilance states except REM sleep (which showed a right hemispheric maximum). Source space analysis revealed increased SWA in the left inferior frontal cortex during NREM sleep and wakefulness. Ictal data displayed poor source-space localization. Comparing each state to REM sleep enhanced localization accuracy; the most clearly localizing results were observed when subtracting REM sleep from wakefulness. Conclusion State-dependent SWA during NREM sleep and wakefulness may help to identify aspects of the potential epileptogenic zone. Future work in larger cohorts may assess the clinical value of sleep SWA to help presurgical planning.Resembling letter-by-letter translation, Morse code can be used to investigate various linguistic components by slowing down the cognitive process of language decoding. Using fMRI and Morse code, we investigated patterns of brain activation associated with decoding three-letter words or non-words and making a lexical decision. Our data suggest that early sublexical processing is associated with activation in brain regions that are involved in sound-patterns to phoneme conversion (inferior parietal lobule), phonological output buffer (inferior frontal cortex pars opercularis) as well as phonological and semantic top-down predictions (inferior frontal cortex pars triangularis). In addition, later lexico-semantic processing of meaningful stimuli is associated with activation of the phonological lexicon (angular gyrus) and the semantic system (default mode network). Overall, our data indicate that sublexical and lexico-semantic analyses comprise two cognitive processes that rely on neighboring networks in the left frontal cortex and parietal lobule.Knowledge about neuron morphology is key to understanding brain structure and function. There are a variety of software tools that are used to segment and trace the neuron morphology. However, these tools usually utilize proprietary formats. This causes interoperability problems since the information extracted with one tool cannot be used in other tools. This article aims to improve neuronal reconstruction workflows by facilitating the interoperability between two of the most commonly used software tools-Neurolucida (NL) and Imaris (Filament Tracer). The new functionality has been included in an existing tool-Neuronize-giving rise to its second version. Neuronize v2 makes it possible to automatically use the data extracted with Imaris Filament Tracer to generate a tracing with dendritic spine information that can be read directly by NL. It also includes some other new features, such as the ability to unify and/or correct inaccurately-formed meshes (i.e., dendritic spines) and to calculate new metrics. This tool greatly facilitates the process of neuronal reconstruction, bridging the gap between existing proprietary tools to optimize neuroscientific workflows.Vertebrate forelimbs contain arrays of sensory neuron fibers that transmit signals from the skin to the nervous system. We used the genetic toolkit and optical clarity of the larval zebrafish to conduct a live imaging study of the sensory neurons innervating the pectoral fin skin. Sensory neurons in both the hindbrain and the spinal cord innervate the fin, with most cells located in the hindbrain. The hindbrain somas are located in rhombomere seven/eight, laterally and dorsally displaced from the pectoral fin motor pool. The spinal cord somas are located in the most anterior part of the cord, aligned with myomere four. Single cell reconstructions were used to map afferent processes and compare the distributions of processes to soma locations. Reconstructions indicate that this sensory system breaks from the canonical somatotopic organization of sensory systems by lacking a clear organization with reference to fin region. Arborizations from a single cell branch widely over the skin, innervating the axial skin, lateral fin surface, and medial fin surface.